Class 9 Political Science (Civics) Chapter 4
Chapter-4: Working of Institutions
How Policy Decisions Are Made:
- In a democracy, representatives follow rules and procedures within institutions.
- Legislature, executive, and judiciary play key roles in decisions.
- The President is the head of the state, while the Prime Minister exercises governmental powers.
A Government Order:
Government Order On August 13, 1990: This order announced that 27% of vacancies in civil posts are reserved for the Socially and Educationally Backward Classes (SEBC).
The Mandal Commission:
- Appointed in 1979, headed by Sh. B.P. Mandal.
- Tasked with identifying socially and educationally backward classes and recommending steps for their advancement.
- Recommended 27% reservation in government jobs for these classes.
Responsibilities of the Mandal Commission:
- Determine criteria for backward classes.
- Identify socially and educationally backward classes.
- Recommend advancement steps for these classes.
Institutions:
Institutions are arrangements in modern democracies. Democracy functions well when these institutions perform their assigned roles.
Need for Political Institutions:
Institutions involve meetings and routines that can introduce delays but are valuable for broader consultation.
Parliament:
- President
- Rajya Sabha (Upper House)
- Lok Sabha (Lower House)
The Parliament:
Parliament is the supreme authority for making laws, controlling government actions, and is the highest forum for public discussion.
Need for a Parliament:
- Final authority for making laws.
- Controls the government and its finances.
- Forum for discussion on public issues and national policies.
Lok Sabha (House of the People):
- Directly elected by the people, with 545 members + 2 nominated.
Rajya Sabha (Council of States):
- Indirectly elected, representing states and regions, with 250 members + 12 nominated.
Lok Sabha vs Rajya Sabha: Comparison of Powers:
- Both Houses must pass ordinary laws; Lok Sabha's view prevails in joint sessions.
- Lok Sabha has more power in financial matters.
- Lok Sabha controls the Council of Ministers.
Executive:
The executive comprises functionaries who make daily decisions, categorized into:
- Political Executive: Elected for specific periods (e.g., ministers).
- Permanent Executive: Civil services assisting in administration.
Prime Minister:
The President appoints the Prime Minister, who advises on appointing other ministers.
The Council of Ministers:
- Includes Cabinet Ministers, Ministers of State with independent charge, and Ministers of State.
Collective Responsibility:
All ministers own up to Cabinet decisions, with the Prime Minister as the head of government.
Prime Ministerial form of government:
Cabinet is powerful, but the Prime Minister holds significant authority.
Election of the President:
The President is elected by MPs and MLAs, not directly by the people.
Powers and Functions of the President of India:
- Major appointments and treaties are made in the President's name.
- President is the supreme commander of defense forces.
- Assent required for laws passed by Parliament.
Indian Judiciary:
- Consists of Supreme Court, High Courts, and District Courts.
- Integrated Judiciary: Supreme Court controls judicial administration.
- Judicial Review: Supreme and High Courts can determine constitutional validity.
- Public Interest Litigation (PIL): Courts protect public interest.
Independence of Judiciary:
Judiciary is independent of legislature and executive, with safeguards in place to ensure its autonomy.
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